Across 3 studies, all reported beneficial effects on vascular endothelial function, with effect sizes ranging from small to moderate (predominantly small). One mouse study showed statistically significant improvements, while two human RCTs (likely from the same trial) found trending but non-significant improvements (p=0.05). The evidence is limited to a single human trial and one animal study; no consistent dose, form, or duration data were available. Populations studied include healthy adults aged 18–65 with BMI 20–34.9 and Western-diet-fed mice.

• Studied populations: Healthy adults aged 18–65 with BMI 20–34.9

Caveats: Available evidence is overwhelmingly positive — clinical literature in this area is subject to publication bias (null-result studies are less likely to be published or indexed). Evidence base is small (only 3 studies) — conclusions should be considered preliminary. Many of the included studies did not reach statistical significance — effect may be smaller than the predominant direction suggests. Additionally, one of the three studies is an animal model, and the two human papers appear to describe the same trial, further limiting independent replication.