Across 3 studies, all reported beneficial effects on inflammatory markers, with effect sizes ranging from small to moderate (predominantly moderate). The evidence primarily comes from reviews of gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) populations and an animal model; no doses or forms were consistently reported, and none of the studies provided statistically significant results. The small evidence base and lack of significant findings limit the strength of the conclusion.

• Studied populations: women with gestational diabetes mellitus

Caveats: Available evidence is overwhelmingly positive — clinical literature in this area is subject to publication bias (null-result studies are less likely to be published or indexed). Evidence base is small (only 3 studies) — conclusions should be considered preliminary. Additionally, none of the included studies reported statistically significant results, and the evidence includes one animal study and two reviews, not primary randomized controlled trials isolating Lactobacillus acidophilus La-14.