Across 3 studies, all reported beneficial effects of Lactobacillus casei rhamnosus on reducing inflammation, with effect sizes ranging from small to moderate. The evidence is drawn from review articles and animal research, with no statistically significant findings reported. The most studied population was women with gestational diabetes mellitus, but the evidence base is too small to draw firm conclusions.
Caveats: Evidence base is small (only 3 studies) — conclusions should be considered preliminary. Available evidence is overwhelmingly positive — clinical literature in this area is subject to publication bias (null-result studies are less likely to be published or indexed). None of the included studies reported statistically significant findings, and two of the three are review articles rather than primary research, limiting the strength of causal inference.
probiotics showed effects on markers of inflammation (CRP)
the context-dependent immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory functions of peptidoglycan
demonstrated significant antibacterial efficacy against S. aureus and S. mutans with notable reductions in inflammatory cytokines (IL-6, TNF-α, IL-1β) and increased IL-10 expression.