Across 3 studies, all reported beneficial effects on inflammation, with effect sizes ranging from small to moderate. The evidence is preliminary and mostly from review-level analyses, with no statistically significant findings reported. The most studied population includes women with gestational diabetes mellitus and animal models, but dose and duration data are not available.
Caveats: Evidence base is small (only 3 studies) — conclusions should be considered preliminary. None of the studies reported statistically significant findings, and most are review-level analyses rather than primary RCTs. Available evidence is overwhelmingly positive — clinical literature in this area is subject to publication bias (null-result studies are less likely to be published or indexed).
probiotics showed effects on markers of inflammation (CRP)
the context-dependent immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory functions of peptidoglycan
demonstrated significant antibacterial efficacy against S. aureus and S. mutans with notable reductions in inflammatory cytokines (IL-6, TNF-α, IL-1β) and increased IL-10 expression.