Across 3 studies, all reported beneficial effects of Lactobacillus casei rhamnosus on reducing inflammation, with effect sizes ranging from small to moderate. The evidence is limited to two review articles and one animal study, with no statistically significant findings reported. The most-studied populations include women with gestational diabetes mellitus and animal models (Wistar rats), but doses and study durations were not consistently reported.
Caveats: Evidence base is small (only 3 studies) — conclusions should be considered preliminary. Available evidence is overwhelmingly positive — clinical literature in this area is subject to publication bias (null-result studies are less likely to be published or indexed). None of the included studies reported statistically significant findings, and two were reviews, limiting the strength of causal inference.
probiotics showed effects on markers of inflammation (CRP)
the context-dependent immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory functions of peptidoglycan
demonstrated significant antibacterial efficacy against S. aureus and S. mutans with notable reductions in inflammatory cytokines (IL-6, TNF-α, IL-1β) and increased IL-10 expression.